Forgotten Empires: Kushan, Songhai, and Maurya Empires

Ashoka, the famous Mauryan emperor, ruled a major part of the Indian sub-continent
in the third century before the Common Era.

History often elevates certain empires—the Roman, Ottoman, and British—leaving other equally transformative civilizations underrepresented. Yet, lesser-known empires like the Kushan, Songhai, and Maurya contributed significantly to the global tapestry of trade, culture, and religion. Their legacies, though sometimes overlooked, have shaped the course of history across continents in ways that still resonate today.

The Kushan Empire: Gateways of Trade and Religion

The Kushan Empire (1st-3rd century CE), originating in Central Asia, connected the East and West through one of the most famous trade routes in history, the Silk Road. Spanning present-day Afghanistan, Pakistan, and northern India, the Kushan were instrumental in facilitating trade and cultural exchange across Eurasia. They controlled crucial sections of the Silk Road, which allowed them to become a melting pot for ideas, religions, and goods.

Influence on Religion: The Kushans were instrumental in the spread of Buddhism beyond India. King Kanishka, one of the most notable Kushan emperors, is revered for his patronage of Buddhism, helping it spread into Central Asia and China. He convened the Fourth Buddhist Council, which helped shape Mahayana Buddhism, a branch that eventually took root across East Asia.

Art and Culture: Kushan art blended Greek, Persian, Indian, and local styles, creating a unique aesthetic that influenced subsequent artistic developments in South Asia and Central Asia. Their coinage, inscriptions, and sculptures stand as testaments to their cosmopolitan empire, highlighting their embrace of multiple cultures and religions.

The Songhai Empire: West Africa’s Powerhouse

The Songhai Empire (c. 15th-16th century) was one of the largest and most prosperous empires in African history, flourishing along the Niger River and covering parts of modern-day Mali, Niger, and Nigeria. At its height, Songhai controlled trade routes that spanned across the Sahara, linking the wealth of West Africa with North Africa and the Middle East.

Trade and Economy: Songhai was immensely wealthy due to its control over the trans-Saharan trade routes, which facilitated the exchange of gold, salt, and other valuable commodities. Gao and Timbuktu, two of Songhai’s principal cities, were bustling centers of trade and learning, attracting scholars, traders, and artisans from across Africa and the Middle East.

Cultural Impact: Songhai’s legacy is seen in the rich cultural heritage of West Africa. The University of Sankore in Timbuktu became a renowned center for Islamic learning, drawing scholars from across the Islamic world. The Songhai Empire’s fusion of Islamic and African traditions influenced the religious and cultural landscape of West Africa, leaving a legacy that continues to influence modern Malian culture.

The Maurya Empire: Pillars of Indian Civilization

The Maurya Empire (c. 322-185 BCE), founded by Chandragupta Maurya, was the first to unify most of the Indian subcontinent. With its administrative sophistication and extensive military reach, it laid the foundations for a unified India. The empire’s most famous ruler, Ashoka, is remembered not just for his conquests but for his transformative embrace of Buddhism.

Political Innovation and Administration: The Mauryan Empire introduced a centralized government with a highly organized bureaucracy. Chandragupta’s advisor, Chanakya, authored the Arthashastra, a treatise on statecraft, economic policy, and military strategy that still stands as one of the foundational texts on political thought in India.

Spread of Buddhism and Cultural Influence: After witnessing the brutality of his conquests, Ashoka converted to Buddhism and promoted it as a path to peace. His edicts, inscribed on pillars and rocks across the empire, spread Buddhist teachings on nonviolence, compassion, and tolerance far beyond India. Ashoka’s role in promoting Buddhism helped the religion spread to Southeast Asia, Central Asia, and even as far as Greece and Egypt, leaving a cultural and spiritual legacy that shaped Asia’s religious landscape.

The Collapse These Powerful Empires

The disappearance or collapse of powerful empires like the Kushan, Songhai, and Maurya often came down to a complex mix of internal weaknesses, external pressures, and, in some cases, the vastness of their domains, which made sustained control challenging. Here’s a closer look at why these three influential empires ultimately faded:

1. The Kushan Empire: Fragmentation and External Threats

The Kushan Empire thrived at the crossroads of Asia, controlling key sections of the Silk Road. However, over time, the empire faced both internal fragmentation and mounting external threats that weakened its stability.

• Internal Fragmentation: By the 3rd century CE, the Kushan Empire was divided among rival factions, weakening centralized authority. As local rulers gained more autonomy, the central government struggled to maintain unity across its vast and culturally diverse territories.

• External Invasions: The Sassanian Empire from Persia and the Gupta Empire from India both expanded into former Kushan territories. The Sassanians, in particular, attacked the western regions, gradually eroding the Kushan control over their territory.

• Economic Decline: The Silk Road trade routes that once enriched the Kushans shifted with the rise of rival powers, leading to an economic downturn. Without strong economic foundations, the Kushan rulers could not maintain their armies or administration effectively.

These combined factors led to the Kushan Empire’s gradual dissolution, as its territories were absorbed by neighboring powers.

2. The Songhai Empire: Civil War and Colonial Invasion

The Songhai Empire rose to power as a major West African kingdom, yet its golden age was short-lived due to internal strife and external pressures.

• Civil War: After the death of Emperor Askia Daoud in 1582, a power struggle ensued. Civil wars between rival factions weakened the empire, draining resources and destabilizing governance. This infighting weakened Songhai’s capacity to resist external threats.

• Moroccan Invasion: In 1591, the Moroccan Sultan Ahmad al-Mansur sought to control the lucrative trans-Saharan trade routes by invading Songhai. Armed with firearms, Moroccan forces defeated Songhai’s traditional armies, which relied on swords and spears. The loss of key cities like Gao and Timbuktu further weakened the empire’s economic and cultural hubs.

• Economic Decline: The Moroccan invasion destabilized the trade networks that were Songhai’s lifeblood. Combined with the shift in global trade routes favoring coastal routes due to European exploration, Songhai’s economy crumbled, leading to its rapid decline.

The empire eventually splintered, with parts falling under Moroccan control, while others devolved into smaller states.

3. The Maurya Empire: Weak Successors and Decentralization

The Maurya Empire, once the largest and most powerful empire in India, faced a decline after the reign of its most famous ruler, Ashoka.

• Ashoka’s Pacifist Policies: Ashoka’s conversion to Buddhism led him to adopt policies that favored peace and nonviolence. While his emphasis on moral governance was beneficial, it reduced the military focus, which, in the long term, affected the empire’s capacity to defend itself and maintain authority over distant provinces.

• Weak Successors: After Ashoka’s death, his successors were unable to maintain the same level of centralized control. Many local governors and regional leaders gained more autonomy, eroding the centralized governance that had once held the Maurya Empire together.

• Economic and Administrative Strain: The empire’s vast size stretched its administrative and military resources. Maintaining order over a large and culturally diverse empire proved too challenging without a strong central leader, and over time, provinces began to assert independence.

By around 185 BCE, the last Mauryan emperor, Brihadratha, was assassinated by his general Pushyamitra Shunga, who established the Shunga Dynasty in place of the Mauryas. This marked the official end of the Maurya Empire as India transitioned to a period of smaller, regional kingdoms.

Common Threads of Collapse

While each empire’s decline was unique, several common factors contributed to their downfalls:

• Internal Division: Civil wars, weak successors, and administrative fragmentation often weakened these empires from within.
• External Pressure: Invasions by neighboring empires or colonial forces exploited internal weaknesses, leading to military defeat and territorial loss.
• Economic Strain: As trade routes shifted or economies faltered, these empires struggled to sustain large armies and complex administrations.

The collapse of these empires shows how even powerful states can be vulnerable to the shifting dynamics of leadership, economic power, and external forces. Despite their fall, each left lasting legacies that continue to shape the world in trade, culture, and religion.

Legacy of the Forgotten Empires

While the Kushan, Songhai, and Maurya empires may not always be highlighted in mainstream history, their influence is woven into the cultural and economic threads of numerous societies. They shaped the movement of goods, ideas, and beliefs across vast territories, and their legacies live on in the religions, cultures, and institutions of today.

From the spread of Buddhism and Islamic learning to pioneering trade networks that connected distant civilizations, these empires demonstrate the power of cross-cultural exchange and governance. Though history may sometimes forget them, their impact endures, a testament to the diverse paths through which humanity has shaped—and continues to shape—the world.